³í¸® ½ÇÁõÁÖÀÇ(Logical Positivism)
¨ç Verifiability theory of meaning (³í¸®½ÇÁõÁÖÀÇÀÇ ÇÙ½É)ÀÌ °íÀüÀûÀÎ ÇüÅ·ΠTractatus¿¡ ÀÖ´Ù°í »ý°¢Ç߱⠶§¹®¿¡. Tractatus¸¦ ¼º°æó·³ ¹Þµê. - Â÷ÀÌ : ¸»ÇÒ ¼ö ÀÖ´Â °Í°ú ¸»ÇÒ ¼ö ¾ø´Â °ÍÀ» ±¸ºÐ. ¸»ÇÒ ¼ö ÀÖ´Â °ÍÀº º¸¿©ÁÜÀ¸·Î½á ¸»ÇÒ ¼ö ¾ø´Â °ÍÀ» º¸¿©ÁÖ´Â °ÍÀÌ Áß¿ä. ±× °æ°è¼± ¹Û¿¡´Â ¸»ÇÒ ¼ö ¾øÁö¸¸ º¸¿©ÁÙ ¼ö ÀÖ´Â °ÍÀÌ ÀÖ´Ù. Meaningful°ú meaningless¸¦ ±¸ºÐ. ±× °æ°è¼± ¹Û¿¡´Â ¾Æ¹« °Íµµ ¾ø´Ù. ÀÌ·ÐÀ¸·Î¼ÀÇ ÇüÀÌ»óÇÐÀº ºÎÁ¤. ºñü°èÀûÀÎ ÇüÀÌ»óÇÐÀº ¹«¾ùº¸´Ùµµ Áß¿ä. ¨è logical empiricism, scientific empiricism A. … ÀÌ ±Û¿¡¼ º¸´Ù½ÃÇÇ °úÇÐ, ³í¸®, °æÇè·ÐÀÌ ³í¸® ½ÇÁõÁÖÀÇÀÇ ¿ì»ó. ÀÌ ´ç½Ã¸¸ Çصµ science´Â ±Í³³¹ý »ç¿ë, °úÇаú°æÇè·ÐÀº ¶¿ ¼ö ¾ø´Â µ¿ÁöÀÇ °ü°è, logic°ú science(empiricism) »çÀÌÀÇ ¹Ù¸¥ °ü°è¸¦ ¼³Á¤ÇÏ´Â °ÍÀÌ ¹®Á¦. ÀüÅëÀûÀÎ °æÇè·ÐÀÚµéÀº À̸¦ J.S. Mill ³í¸®ÇÐÀû ¸íÁ¦´Â °æÇèÀÇ ÀϹÝÈ¿Í °°ÀÌ ¼³¸í. ÀÌ°ÍÀº ³í¸®ÇÐÀÚµé·Î¼´Â ¹Þ¾ÆµéÀ̱⠾î·Á¿ò. ÀÌ ¶§ ºñÆ®°Õ½´Å¸ÀÎÀÌ, ³í¸®ÀûÀÎ ¸íÁ¦´Â ÀüºÎ Tautoology ¾Æ´Ï¸é ContradictionÀ¸·Î ÇÙ½ÉÀû ÀÎ ºÎºÐÀ» ÇØ°áÇÔ. B. ³í¸® ½ÇÁõÁÖÀÇÀÚ¿¡ ÀÇÇϸé, ÀǹÌÀÖ´Â ¸íÁ¦´Â µÎ°¡Áö·Î ºÐ·ùµÊ. ¨ç analytic statement ¡Ø veritas de keison (Leibniz) relations of ideas (Hume) ¸íÁ¦ÀÇ Çü½Ä¿¡ ÀÇÇؼ ÁøÀ§ °áÁ¤ ¼¼°Ô¿¡ ´ëÇؼ ¾Æ¹«·± Á¤º¸µµ Á¦°øÇÏÁö ¾Ê´Â´Ù. ¨è synthetic statement ¡Ø veritas des faits matters of facts (Hume) °¨°¢ÀûÀÎ ¹æ½Ä¿¡ ÀÇÇؼ Âü, °ÅÁþ °áÁ¤ → ¼¼°è°¡ ¾î¶»´Ù¿¡ ÀÇÁ¸. ¸íÁ¦¸¦ ºÎÁ¤ÇÏ¸é ¸ð¼øÀÌ ¾Æ´Ï°í °ÅÁþ. ÀνÄÀûÀ¸·Î ÀǹÌÀÖ´Â(cognitively meaningful) ¸íÁ¦´Â "Á¾ÇÕ¸íÁ¦" »Ó. ¾î¶² Á¶°ÇÀÌ ÃæÁ·µÇ¾úÀ» ¶§ Á¾ÇÕ¸íÁ¦°¡ ÀǹÌÀÖ´Â ¸íÁ¦°¡ µÇ´Â°¡? → ÀÌ°ÍÀÌ VerifiabilityÀÇ ÇÙ½ÉÀûÀÎ ¹°À½. ¨é 1920³â´ë Ãʹݿ¡ ½ÃÀÛ. 1935³â Á߹ݱîÁö ¼¾ç öÇÐÀ» Áö¹è 1922³â Vienna ´ëÇп¡ Moritz SchlickÀÌ Ã¶Çб³¼ö·Î ºÎÀÓ. ÀÚ¿¬°íÇÐ, »çȸ°úÇÐ, ¼öÇÐ, öÇÐÇÏ´Â »ç¶÷µéÀÌ ±× ÁÖÀ§¿¡ ¸ð¿© CircleÀ» ÀÌ·ë→Der Wiener Kreis R. Carnap, Waismann, Otto Neurath. Berlin ´ëÇÐÀÇ ÀÏ·ÃÀÇ Ã¶ÇÐÀÚµéÀÌ ³ªÁß¿¡ À̵鿡 °¡´ã. h. Reichenbach, H. Feigl, C. Hempel. 1936³â Moritz SchlickÀÌ ¼ö»ç¿´´ø Á¦ÀÚ¿¡°Ô ¾Ï»ìµÊ. ´ç½Ã Wien¿¡¼´Â ´ÙÀ½°ú°°ÀÌ Çؼ® : StandalÀÇ ¼Ò¼³Ã³·³ Àû°ú ÈæÀÇ ´ë°á·Î. 1936³â Hitler Áý±Ç. 1Â÷ ´ëÀü ÀÌÈÄ ¼Ò±¹ÀÌ µÈ ¿À½ºÆ®¸®¾Æ´Â µ¶ÀÏ ´ç½Ã ¿ÀÁö¸®ÀÇ ÁöÀû ¼¼°è ¸¦ À¯ÅÂÀÎÀÌ Àå¾Ç, ¹®ÇÐ, ¿¹¼ú¿¡ À־ ǥÇöÁÖÀÇ µî, ÀüÅë¿¡ ´ëÇÑ Àü¸éÀûÀÎ °ÅºÎ¿Í ¹Ý¹ßÀÌ ÁöÀû ¼¼°è¸¦ dz ¹Ì. À̵鿡 ÀÇÇؼ
³í¸® ½ÇÁõÁÖÀÇ°¡ ȯ¿µ¹Þ°í ¹Þ¾Æµé¿©Áü. Âü°í¼Àû >> A.J.Ayer, "Language, Truth & Logic", 1936 V. Kraft, "Der Wiener Kreis", 1950 H. Reichenbach, "The rise of scientific philosophy", 1951 J. Weinber, "An examination of L.P" A.J.Ayer, ed. "Logical Positivism", 1959 A. ÀνÄÀûÀ¸·Î ÀǹÌÀÖ´Â ¹®ÀåÀÌ µÇ±â À§ÇÑ Á¶°ÇÀº? ÀÌ¿¡ ´ëÇÑ ´ë´äÀÌ Àǹ̰ËÁõ·Ð. 10CÀÇ ½ÇÁõÁÖÀÇ¿Í ¹ÐÁ¢ÇÑ ¿¬°ü°ü°è. Auguiste Conte, J.S. Mill µî°ú ¸¶Âù°¡Áö·Î ÀνÄÀûÀÎ °¡Ä¡°¡ ÀÖ´Â °ÍÀº °æÇèÀûÀÌ°í °úÇÐÀû ÀÎ °Í → ½ÇÁõÁÖÀÇÀÇ ÇÙ½ÉÀº ÀνķÐ. ³í¸® ½ÇÁõÁÖÀÇ´Â ¿©±â¿¡ Àǹ̷ÐÀûÀÎ ÁÖÀå(Àǹ̰ËÁõ·Ð0À» ºÎ°¡. °æÇèÀûÀÎ °Í¸¸ÀÌ ÀνÄÀûÀ¸·Î °¡Ä¡°¡ ÀÖ´Ù. ¿Ö³ÄÇÏ¸é ±×·¸Áö ¾ÊÀ¸¸é ¹«ÀǹÌÇϱ⠶§¹®¿¡. ³í¸® ½ÇÁõÁÖÀÇ´Â Çõ¸íÀûÀÎ ¼º°Ý - ÀüÅëÀûÀΠöÇÐÀ» Àü¸é ºÎÁ¤. B. Àǹ̰ËÁõ·ÐÀ̶õ? ÀνÄÀûÀ¸·Î ÀǹÌÀÖ´Ù´Â °ÍÀÌ ¹«¾ùÀ̳Ä? ±× Á¶°ÇÀÌ ¹«¾ùÀ̳Ä? ¨ç ÃʱâÀÇ strong verification theory. S¶õ ¹®ÀåÀÌ ÀǹÌÀÖ°Ô µÇ±â À§Çؼ´Â, I) direct reports of sense experiece. ii) meaning of S is methhod of verification. ÀÌ ¶§ I)Àº meaningfulness, significanceÀÇ Á¶°Ç. ii)Àº meaning. ±×·±µ¥ ii)´Â ¾ÆÁÖ ´Ü¼øÇÑ ¹®Àå¿¡ Àû¿ëµÇÁö¸¸ º¹ÀâÇØÁö¸¸ Àû¿ëµÉ ¼ö°¡ ¾ø´Ù. ±×·¡¼ Á¡Â÷·Î ii)´Â Â÷Â÷ »ç¶óÁö°í, °ËÁõ·ÐÀ̶õ I)¸¸ À¯ÀǹÌÀÇ ±âÁØÀ¸·Î¼¸¸. i),ii)°øÅëÀ¸·Î semantic condition = ¼Ò°Ü¼Ò condition = °¨°¢ÀûÀÎ °æÇè. ÀÌ¿Í °°Àº strong theory¿¡ ÀÇÇϸé, °ú°Å¿¡ ´ëÇÑ Áø¼úÀº ÀǹÌÀÖ´Â ¿µ¿ª¿¡¼ ¹èÁ¦, µµÇÑ ´Ù¸¥ »ç¶÷ÀÇ °¨°¢ÀûÀÎ °æÇè ¿ª½Ã ¹®Á¦°¡ µÊ. ¹Ì·¡¿¡ ´ëÇÑ Áø¼úÀº ¹èÁ¦µÊ. ±×·¡¼ ¼öÁ¤µ· ÀÔÀåÀÌ´Ù À½. → ÇϳªÀÇ ¹®ÀåÀÌ ´ÙÀ½ÀÇ Á¶°ÇÀ» ¸¸Á·ÇÒ ¶§ À¯ÀǹÌ. (1) ºÐ¼®ÀûÀÌ ¾Æ´Ï°í, (2)À¯ÇÑ(finite)ÇÏ°í ³í¸®ÀûÀ¸·Î Á¤ÇÕÀûÀÎ °üÂû ¹®ÀåÀÇ ÁýÇÕÀ¸·ÎºÎÅÍ ³í ¸®ÀûÀ¸·Î µµÃâµÉ ¼ö ÀÖÀ» ¶§, A sentence S is cognitively meaningful, iff S is not analytic and S follows logically from some finite and logically consistent class of observation sentences. ¹®Á¦) <1> À¯ÇÑÀûÀÎ ´ÜĪ ¸éÁ¦µéÀÇ ÁýÇÕÀ¸·ÎºÎÅÍ ÀüĪ¸íÁ¦¸¦ ³í¸®ÀûÀ¸·Î µµÃâÇÒ ¼ö ¾ø´Ù. Áï, Àü Ī ¸íÁ¦´Â strong verification¿¡ ÀÇÇؼ °ËÁõÇÒ ¼ö ¾øÀ½. → Àǹ̰¡¾øÀ½. ±×·±µ¥ , ³í¸®½ÇÁõ ÁÖÀÇÀÚµéÀÇ ¿ì»óÀÎ °úÇÐÀÇ ¸íÁ¦µéÀº ´ëºÎºÐ ÀüĪ ¸íÁ¦. <2> strong verificatio¿¡ µû¸£¸é, existential statement°¡ ÀǹÌÀÖ´Â ¹®ÀåÀÇ prototype, ±×·± µ¥ ³í¸®Çп¡ ÀÇÇϸé, ÇϳªÀÇ ¹®ÀåÀÌ ÀǹÌÀÖ´Â °ÍÀ̸é, ±× ¸íÁ¦ÀÇ ºÎÁ¤µµ ÀǹÌÀÖ´Â ¹®ÀåÀÌ µÇ ¾î¾ß Çϴµ¥, existential statementÀÇ ºÎÁ¤Àº universal statement. ÀÌ°ÍÀº strong verification¿¡ µû¸£¸é °ËÁõÀÌ ºÒ°¡´ÉÇÏ´Ù. (2) ÀÌ ´ë¾ÈÀ¸·Î Popper´Â ¡ºLogik der Forschung¡», 1936. Falisifiability. ¡Ø ±×·±µ¥ Popper´Â Àǹ̷п¡ ´ëÇØ ºÎÁ¤ÀûÀÎ ÀÔÀå. falsifiabilityµµ Àǹ̷п¡ ´ëÇؼ ³ª¿Â °Í ÀÌ ¾Æ´Ï¶ó, °úÇаú »çÀ̺ñ°úÇÐÀÇ demarcationÀ¸·Î. Falsifiability. "A sentence S is cognitively menaingful, iff its denial(∼S) is not analytic and follows logically from some finite and logically consistent class of observation sentences." ÀÌ¿¡ ÀÇÇÏ¸é ¸ðµç ÀüĪ ¸íÁ¦´Â À¯ÀǹÌ. : verifiability ÀÌ·ÐÀ» ±×´ë·Î ¹Þ¾ÆµéÀ̸é, ÀÚ¿¬ °úÇÐÀÇ °¡´É¼º ÀÚü°¡ ¾ø¾îÁö´Âµ¥, Falsifiability
ÀÌ·ÐÀ» ¹Þ¾ÆµéÀ̸é, À̸¦ ÇÇÇÒ ¼ö ÀÖ´Ù. ±×·±µ¥ (x)Fx→(∃x)∼Fx. ← ³í¸®ÀÇ ¹ýÄ¢¿¡ À§¹è.
(3) A.J.Ayer, ¡ºLanguage, truth and logic¡», 1936. weak verification theory. ÇϳªÀÇ ¹®ÀåÀº ´ÙÀ½°ú °°Àº Á¶°ÇÀ» ÃæÁ·ÇÒ ¶§ À¯ÀǹÌ. ÀûÀýÇÑ º¸Á¶°¡¼³°ú ÇÔ²² S·ÎºÎÅÍ, ÀûÀýÇÑ º¸Á¶°¡¼³·ÎºÎÅ͸¸ µµÃâÇÒ ¼ö ¾ø´Â °üÂû ¸íÁ¦¸¦ µµ ÃâÇÒ ¼ö ÀÖÀ» ¶§. A Sentence S has empirical import if from S in conjunction with suitable susidiary hypothesis it is possible to derive observation sentences which are not derivable from the subsidiary hypothesis alone. ¿¹) If S(´ºÅÏÀÇ 2¹ýÄ¢) is right, Ball will continue to roll. This ball is continuing to roll. ¹®Á¦) ÀûÀýÇÑ º¸Á¶°¡¼³ …… À§¿Í °°Àº º¸Á¶°¡¼³Àº observation sentence¶ó¼ ¹®Á¦°¡ ¾øÁö ¸¸, º¸Á¶°¡¼³ÀÇ ±¸¼º¿¡ µû¶ó¼ ¿Â°® ¹®ÀåÀÌ(°ÅÀÇ ¸ðµç ¹®ÀåÀÌ) ÀǹÌÀÖ°Ô µÉ ¼ö ÀÖ´Ù. Àý´ëÀÚ´Â ¿ÏÀüÇÏ´Ù.(The Absolute is perfect). S.H. : If the Absolute is perfect, then the apple is red.) Modus Ponens¿¡ ÀÇÇؼ the apple is red¶ó´Â °üÂû ¸íÁ¦°¡ µµÃâµÊ. µû¶ó¼ ¡¸Àý´ëÀÚ´Â ¿ÏÀü ÇÏ´Ù¡¹¶ó´Â °üÂû ¸íÁ¦°¡ µµÃâµÊ. µû¶ó¼ ¡¸Àý´ëÀÚ´Â ¿ÏÀüÇÏ´Ù¡¹¶õ ¹®ÀåÀº À¯ÀǹÌÇÑ ¹®Àå. → 1930³â´ë¿¡ ³í¸® ½ÇÁõÁÖÀÇÀڵ鿡 ÀÇÇØ ÀïÁ¡ÀÌ µÊ.
(4) CarnapÀÌ »õ·Î¿î Á¦¾È. 1936-37. Translatability and Meaning. ¹®Àå SÀÇ À¯Àǹ̼º °ËÁõ °¡´É¼ºÀÌ °ÇÑ °ÍÀÌµç ¾àÇÑ °ÍÀ̵ç, falisifiability´Â »ó°ü¾øÀÌ °æÇè ÀûÀÎ ¾ð¾î(Empiricist Language) LÀ» Çϳª ¸¸µéÀÚ. I) observation predicates ii) Logical Locutions. iii) rules of transformation. ÀÌ ¼¼°¡Áö·Î ±¸¼ºµÈ Àΰø¾ð¾î¸¦ ¸¸µé¾î¼ ¾î¶² ¹®Àå SÀÇ À¯Àǹ̼ºÀ» °æÇèÀûÀÎ ¾ð¾î S·Î ¹ø¿ªÇÒ ¼ö ÀÖ´À³Ä ¾ø´À³Ä¿¡ µû¶ó °áÁ¤ÇÏÀÚ. ¾ÕÀÇ ¹®Àå The Absolute is perfectÀÇ Absolute´Â °æÇèÀûÀÎ ¾ð¾î°¡ ¾Æ´Ï´Ï±î, À¯ÀǹÌÇÑ ¹®Àå Àº ¾Æ´Ï´Ù. ¾î¶² ¸é¿¡¼ ¾ÕÀÇ Á¦¾ÈµéÀÇ ³Á¡À» ÇÇÇÒ ¼ö ÀÖ¾úÁö¸¸, ¹®Á¦) <1> ¿Ö ÇÏÇÊÀÌ¸é °æÇèÀûÀÎ ¾ð¾î³Ä? - ½ÇÁõÁÖÀÇÀڵ鿡°Ô´Â ´ç¿¬ÇÑ °ÍÀ¸·Î ¹Þ¾Æµé¿©Á®¼ Àû¾îµµ ´ç½Ã¿¡´Â ¹®Á¦°¡ µÇÁö ¾Ê¾Ò´Ù. <2> energy, temparature, intelligence. observation predicate´Â Ãä´Ù, ´þ´Ù µîÀÌÁö, temparature´Â ¾Æ´Ï´Ù. ÀÌ¿Í °°Àº ÀÚ¿¬°úÇÐÀÇÁø ¼úü°èÀÇ ÇÙ½ÉÀÎ theoretical constructs(ÀÌ·ÐÀûÀÎ ±¸¼º¹°)À» ¾î¶»°Ô °æÇèÀûÀÎ ¾ð¾î L·Î ¹ø¿ª Çϴ°¡? <3> ÀÚ¿¬°úÇÐÀÇ Áø¼úü°è¸¦ º¸¸é, ¼ºÇâÀ» ³ªÅ¸³»´Â Ç¥Çö(disposition terms)ÀÌ ¸¹´Ù. À¯¿¬¼º ÀÌ ÀÖ´Ù. ºÎ·¯Áö±â ½±´Ù µî. ¿ª½Ã °üÂûÀûÀÎ ¼ú¾î¸¸ °¡Áö°í ¹ø¿ªÇϱⰡ ½±Áö ¾Ê´Ù. ¿¹¸¦ µé¾î¼ ´ÙÀ½°ú °°ÀÌ ¹ø¿ª. T(x)=C iff the following condition is not. If thermometer is in contact with x, then it registers 30¡É on its scale. ±×·¯³ª ¿©±â¼µµ ¹®Á¦°¡ ÀÖ´Ù. <1> À§ÀÇ ¹®ÀåÀº P⊃QÀÇ ²Ã. µû¶ó¼ Àü°ÇÀÌ °ÅÁþÀ̸é, ÈÄ°ÇÀÇ Âü, °ÅÁþ¿¡ »ó°ü¾øÀÌ Àüü ¹®ÀåÀº Âü. ¹Ý»ç½ÇÀû °¡Á¤ÀÌ ÀϹÝÀûÀ¸·Î ¾È°í ÀÖ´Â ¹®Á¦°¡ ±×´ë·Î Àû¿ë. ÀÌ ¾î·Á¿òÀ» ÇØ°áÇÏ´Â ¹æ¹ýÀÌ ¹«¾ùÀÌ°Ú´À³Ä? → µÎ°¡Áö Á¦¾È. a. ½ÇÁ¦·Î ±×·¸Áö ¾ÊÀºµ¥, ¸¸¾à ¿Âµµ°è°¡ x¿Í Á¢ÃËÇÏ°í ÀÖ´Ù¸é, 30¡É¸¦ °¡¸®Å²´Ù. → counterfactual statement´Â ³í¸®Ã¶Çп¡¼ ¾ÆÁ÷µµ ³í¶õÀÌ ¸¹´Ù. b. temperature ÀϹݿ¡ ´ëÇؼ ¾ê±âÇÏÁö ¸»°í ½ÇÁ¦·Î x¿Í Á¢ÃËÇÏ°í ÀÖ´Â ¿Âµµ°è¿¡ ´ëÇؼ¸¸ ¾ê±âÇÏÀÚ. → partial definition. ±×·¯³ª ÀÚ¿¬°íÇÐÀÇ Áø¼úü°è´Â ¿Âµµ ÀϹݿ¡ ´ëÇؼ ¾ê±âÇÏ´Â °Í. ¡Ø Russell öÇÐÀÇ Áø¼úÀº ¹ÝÁõÀÌ µÇ°Å³ª ³íÁõÀÌ µÇ´Â °ÍÀÌ ¾Æ´Ï°í À¯ÇàÀÌ ¹Ù²î´Â °Í. (ÀÌ·± ³ë·ÂµéÀÌ ¸ðµÎ Çã»ç·Î µ¹¾Æ°¡ÀÚ,) 50³â´ë ¸»¿¡ »õ·Î¿î öÇÐÀÇ paradigmÀÌ Á¦½ÃµÇÀÚ ±× ÂÊÀ¸·Î
¸ô¸². ³í¸® ½ÇÁõÁÖÀÇ°¡ Àǹ̰ËÁõ·Ð¿¡ ±¹ÇÑµÈ °ÍÀº ¾Æ´Ï°í, ÀÌ ÀÇ¹Ì °ËÁõ·ÐÀ» Åä´ë·Î ¸î°¡Áö these ¸¦ Á¦½Ã. I) ÇüÀÌ»óÇÐÀÇ ¹èô ii) ÀüÅëÀûÀÎ À±¸®ÇÐÀÇ ¹èô iii) unified science. I) ÇüÀÌ»óÇÐÀÇ ¹èÁ¦. ÇüÀÌ»óÇÐÀÇ Áø¼úÀº °æÇèÀ» ³Ñ¾î¼±, °æÇèÀÇ ÇǾȿ¡ ´ëÇÑ Áø¼ú. ³í¸® ½ÇÁõÁÖÀÇÀÚµéÀÇ ÀüÁ¦¿¡ ÀÇÇϸé, ÀÌ·± Áø¼úµéÀº ¹«ÀǹÌ. Carnap>> À½¾ÇÀûÀÎ ¼ÒÁúÀÌ ÀüÇô¾ø´Â À½¾Ç°¡. - ÇüÀÌ»óÇÐÀû ¸íÁ¦´Â ÀÏÁ¾ÀÇ ÁÖ°üÀû ŵµ (À½¾Ç°ú ½Ã¿Í ¸¶Âù°¡Áö·Î) À½¾Ç°ú ½Ã¿Í ´Ù¸¥ °ÍÀº »ç½Ç¿¡ °üÇÑ Áø¼úÀ̶ó°í ÁÖÀå. ¿©±â¼ ³í¸®½ÇÁõÁÖÀÇÀÚ¿Í WittgensteinÀÇ Â÷ÀÌ°¡ µå·¯³². |
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